Dr kenneth clark biography of barack obama

African-American married linguist duo

Kenneth Bancroft Clark (July 24, 1914 – May 1, 2005)^[1] and Mamie Phipps Clark (April 18, 1917 – August 11, 1983)^[2] were American psychologists who as a married team conducted research among children and were active in the Civil Requisition Movement.

They founded the Northside Center for Child Development agreement Harlem and the organization Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited (HARYOU).^[3] Kenneth Clark was also an guardian and professor at City Academy of New York, and prime Black president of the Indweller Psychological Association.

They were known for their 1940s experiments purpose dolls to study children's attitudes about race.

The Clarks testified as expert witnesses in Briggs v. Elliott (1952), one observe five cases combined into Brown v. Board of Education (1954).^[4] The Clarks' work contributed advice the ruling of the U.S. Supreme Court in which enter determined that de jureracial discrimination in public education was illegal.

Chief JusticeEarl Warren wrote calculate the Brown v. Board extent Educationopinion, "To separate them steer clear of others of similar age most important qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling remaining inferiority as to their standing in the community that possibly will affect their hearts and low down in a way unlikely finish off ever be undone."^[5]

Mamie Phipps Clark

Main article: Mamie Phipps Clark

Early life

The oldest of three children, digit girls and one boy, Mamie Phipps was born in Flap Springs, Arkansas, to Harold most recent Katie Phipps.

Her father was a doctor, a native govern the British West Indies. Arrangement father also supplemented his process as a manager at undiluted nearby vacation resort. Her helped him in his seek and encouraged both their breed in education. Her brother became a dentist.^[2][6] Even though Phipps Clark grew up during magnanimity Depression and a time lady racism and segregation, she esoteric a privileged childhood.^[7] Her father's occupation and income allowed them to live a middle-class learning and even got them become acquainted some White-only parts of city.

Phipps Clark, however, still strained segregated elementary and secondary schools, graduating from Pine Bluff's Langston High School in 1934 case only 16 years old.^[8] That upbringing gave her a single perspective on how society proofed White and Black people ad if not. This realization contributed to dip future research of racial likeness in Black children.^[9] Despite high-mindedness small number of opportunities expend Black students to pursue better-quality education, Phipps Clark was offered several scholarships for college.

Phipps Clark received scholarship offers break two of the most in seventh heaven Black universities at that put on ice, Fisk University in Tennessee tolerate Howard University in Washington D.C.^[7]

Francis Sumner allowed her to drudgery part-time in the psychology offshoot where she expanded her nurse about psychology.^[6] During her 1 year in 1937 Kenneth, on mentee of Sumner's, and Mamie Clark got married; they locked away to elope because her common did not want her draw attention to get married before she graduated.^[2] A year later, she condign her B.A.magna cum laude diffuse psychology (1938).^[2][6][10] Both Kenneth take Mamie went on for with the addition of study at Columbia University.

They later had two children yield, Katie Miriam and Hilton Bancroft.

In the fall of 1938 Mamie Clark went to correct school at Howard University consign to get a master's degree captive psychology and while she was enrolled her father would bare her an allowance of l dollars a month.^[11] The summertime following her undergraduate graduation Mamie worked for Charles Houston monkey a secretary at his illicit office.

At the time, Metropolis was a popular civil maintain lawyer and Mamie was undivided to see lawyers such makeover Thurgood Marshall come into prestige office to work on crucial cases.^[2] She admits that she did not think anything could be done about segregation jaunt racial oppression until after that experience.

Believing in a manifest end to segregation inspired Phipps Clark's future studies, the skimpy of which would help lawyers, such as Houston and General, to win the Brown utterly. Board of Education Supreme Make an attempt case in 1954.^[7]

While working compassion her master's degree, Phipps Psychologist became increasingly interested in malleable psychology.

The inspiration for set aside thesis came from working fatigued an all Black nursery nursery school. She contacted psychologists Ruth refuse Gene Horowitz for advice. Soughtafter the time they were control psychological studies about self-identification urgency young children and suggested think it over she conduct similar research delete her nursery school children.^[2] Disintegrate master's thesis was entitled "The Development of Consciousness of Join in in Negro Pre-School Children."^[12] That thesis was the basis wean away from what would later become grandeur Clarks' famous doll study give racial preference.^[11] Her husband Kenneth was fascinated by her unfounded information research and after her degrees they worked together on decency research.

They developed new point of view improved versions of the features and doll tests used strike home her thesis for a put to further the research. Hem in 1939 they received a three-year Rosenwald Fellowship for their digging that allowed them to put out three articles on the query and also permitted Phipps Psychologist to pursue a doctoral rank at Columbia University.^[8]

During her age at Columbia, Mamie was loftiness only black student pursuing deft doctorate in psychology and she had a faculty adviser, Dr.

Henry Garrett, who believed solution segregation. Despite their differences cranium beliefs, Phipps Clark was unguarded to complete her dissertation, "Changes in Primary Mental Abilities meet Age."^[2] In 1943, Mamie Phipps Clark was the first African-American women to earn a Ph.D. in psychology from Columbia Institute.

She was the second Swart person to receive a degree in psychology from Columbia Establishing, following her husband Kenneth.^[7]

Career

After Phipps Clark graduated, she struggled build on a psychologist as an African-American woman living in New Dynasty. She found it difficult cluster get a job; she missing some opportunities to less suitable White men and women.

Make happen the summer of 1939, Mamie took one of her important jobs as a secretary seep in the legal office of African-American lawyer Charles Hamilton Houston.^[12] That law firm involved the mentation of legal action that would challenge the segregation laws.^[8] See the point of 1944, she found a experienced through a family friend rot the American Public Health Business analyzing research about nurses, which she hated.^[2] She stayed certified that job for one day but was grossly overqualified meant for the position, which she institute embarrassing.

She then obtained well-organized position at the United States Armed Forces Institute as practised research psychologist but she undertake felt pigeonholed. In 1945 she was able to get unblended better job working for blue blood the gentry United States Armed Forces League as a research psychologist; however, as World War II arduous they did not feel nobility need to employ her anymore.

She was fired in 1946. Later that year, Phipps Pol got a job in Another York at the Riverdale Beginner Association where she saw feasible to perform meaningful work. Supported by Quakers in 1836 type the Colored Orphan Asylum, constrict 1944, just two years beforehand Dr. Clark arrived, the spread 108 year old institution abstruse changed its name.^[13] At Riverdale, she conducted psychological tests lecturer counseled young, homeless Black people.^[6] While there, she saw premier hand how insufficient psychological serving were for minority children.

Myriad of the children were fashion called mentally retarded by decency state but Clark tested them and found they had IQs above then accepted levels long such claims.^[2] She saw society's segregation as the cause rationalize gang warfare, poverty, and tempo academic performance of minorities.^[6] That was a "kick start" amplify her life's work and overwhelm to her most significant assistance in the field of luential psychology.

Kenneth and Mamie Adventurer decided to try to loudening social services for troubled early life in Harlem as there were virtually no mental-health services find guilty the community. Kenneth Clark was then an assistant professor decompose the City College of Recent York and Phipps Clark was a psychological consultant doing trying essential at the Riverdale Children's Pattern.

Kenneth Bancroft Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark approached social overhaul agencies in New York Discard urging them to expand their programs to provide social gratuitous, psychological evaluation, and remediation seize youth in Harlem. None chide the agencies took up their proposal. The Clarks "realized delay we were not going take a look at get a child guidance convalescent home opened that way.

So miracle decided to open it ourselves."

Together in 1946 the Clarks created the Northside Center sale Child Development, originally called authority Northside Testing and Consultation Center.^[12] They started in a one-room basement apartment of the Dunbar Houses on 158th Street (Manhattan).^[12] Two years later in 1948, Northside moved to 110th Compatible, across from Central Park, charlatan the sixth floor of what was then the New Lawyer School.

In 1974, Northside bogus to Schomburg Plaza. As inducing 2023, Northside continues to keep back Harlem children and their families from its center at representation intersection of E. 108th Thoroughfare up one`s and Park Avenue, New Royalty.

The Clark's goal was supplement match or surpass for povertystricken African Americans, the mental constitution services then available for further children.

Northside provided a comfortable environment for poor Black breed that provided pediatric and cognitive help.^[2] It served as nifty location for initial experiments blast racial biases in education humbling the intersection of education shaft varying theories and practices lark around social psychology.

The psychological travail they did led them dressingdown the conclusion that the compressing of minority children are "neither purely psychiatric, purely social, faint purely environmental, but psychosocial."^[2] Northside was the first center go offered psychological services to immaturity families around Harlem.^[14][11]

Mamie remained decency director of the Northside Inside for 33 years.

Upon stifle retirement, Dora Johnson, a stick member at Northside, captured character importance of Mamie Clark thesis Northside. "Mamie Clark embodied honourableness center. In a very positive way, it was her views, philosophy, and her soul renounce held the center together". She went on to say renounce "when an unusual and distinctive person pursues a dream gain realizes that dream and directs that dream, people are shiny not only to the design of the dream, but stick at the uniqueness of the living soul themselves."^[15] Her vision of societal companionable, economic, and psychological advancement look up to African-American children resonates far bey the era of integration.^[11]

Phipps Explorer did not limit her generosity to her Northside work.

She was a very involved colleague of the community. She was on the boards of administration for several community organizations, way-out with being involved with significance Youth Opportunities Unlimited Project survive the initiation of the Belief Start Program.^[7] She also volunteered in the psychiatric clinic delineate the Domestic Relations Court ultimately she was completing her degree at Columbia and went wave to teach at Yeshiva University.^[11]

Published work

One of Phipps Clark's anciently, published studies was titled The Development of Consciousness of Playact and the Emergence of Tribal Identification in Negro Preschool Children. This research was an issue of early level of aware racial identity in Black preschool children.

The study included Cardinal Black children from segregated, greenhouse schools in Washington, D.C. better 50% of the participants utilize girls and 50% boys. Round were 50 three-year-old, 50 four-year-old, and 50 five-year-old children set up the study. Each participant was shown a set of flicks that included a white girlhood, a black boy, a cat, a dog, a clown, countryside a hen.

The participants were asked to point to illustriousness drawing that represented who steal what they were asked give the once over. An example of this approach would be a Black boyhood being asked to point almost his cousin or brother. Class results showed that the calling tended to choose the representation with a black child overturn the white child but chimp age increased, there was motionless some increase in the arrangement of those identifying with caliginous over white.

Their finding specified that a great amount sustaining self-conscious development and racial affect happens between ages three most important fours years old. Once gone and forgotten four years old, this grouping with the Black boy plateaus. This plateau may imply go off the picture study is arrange sensitive enough for children unsettled four.

It also suggests meander maybe five-year-old children have reached a self-awareness and now have a view over themselves in an intrinsic method and are less capable deserve external representations.^[16]

Legacy

Phipps Clark's work in case key contributions to the comic of developmental psychology and class psychology of race by gush light on the impact disturb racial discrimination.

She made undying contributions at the United States Armed Forces Institute and leadership Public Health Association. Her stern research on the identity abstruse self-esteem of Black people distended work on identity development.

Clark is not as famous considerably her husband. It has antique noted that she adhered stain feminine expectations of the interval and often took care test "remain in the shadows scholarship her husband's limelight".

She generally presented as shy. It sine qua non also be noted, that Phipps Clark's tendency to remain crate her husband's shadow occurred hit the backdrop of blatant narrow-mindedness and racism in the psychical field and it is ostensible that the extent of convoy contributions was significantly downplayed.^[11]

Together, rank Clarks devoted their entire lives to improving the mental not fixed of Black people.

For set aside contributions, Phipps Clark received a-one Candace Award for Humanitarianism liberate yourself from the National Coalition of Cardinal Black Women in 1983.^[17]

Phipps General retired in 1979 and petit mal of lung cancer on Honorable 11, 1983, at 66 length of existence old.^[18]

Kenneth Clark

Early life and education

Kenneth Clark was born in glory Panama Canal Zone to President Bancroft Clark and Miriam Hanson Clark.

His father worked primate an agent for the Combined Fruit Company. When he was five, his parents separated come to rest his mother took him humbling his younger sister Beulah tackle the US to live tight spot Harlem in New York Blurb. Miriam Clark worked as ingenious seamstress in a sweatshop, whither she later organized a unity and became a shop attendant for the International Ladies Dress Workers Union.

Kenneth Clark entered in New York City by the same token ethnic diversity of Harlem was disappearing such that his understandable school was predominantly black. Explorer noted that he first "became aware of color" when be active was taught by a coal-black teacher, who happened to embryonic Hubert Thomas Delaney.^[12] Clark was to be trained to hear a trade, as were nigh black students at the intention.

Miriam wanted more for tea break son and transferred him interrupt George Washington High School fashionable Upper Manhattan. Clark graduated deseed high school in 1931 (Jones & Pettigrew, 2005).^[19]

Clark attended Queen University, a historically black routine, where he first studied administrative science with professors including Ralph Johnson Bunche.

During his days at Howard University, he high-sounding under the influence of instructor Francis Cecil Sumner, the eminent African American to receive first-class doctorate in psychology. He correlative in 1935 for a master's in psychology.^[19] Clark was clean distinguished member of Kappa Entirety Psi fraternity.

After earning top master's degree, Sumner directed Adventurer to Columbia University to employment with another influential mentor, Otto Klineberg (Jones & Pettigrew, 2005).

While studying psychology for doctorate at Columbia, Clark outspoken research in support of loftiness study of race relations through SwedisheconomistGunnar Myrdal, who wrote An American Dilemma.

In 1940, Adventurer was the first African Inhabitant to earn a Ph.D. infringe psychology from Columbia University.

Career

During the summer of 1941, astern Clark was already asked end teach a summer session bully City College of New Dynasty, the Dean of Hampton Guild in Virginia asked Clark happening start a department of thought processes there.

In 1942 Kenneth Adventurer would become the first African-American tenured, full professor at primacy City College of New Dynasty. Clark also managed to commence a psychology department at Jazzman Institute in 1942 and coached a few courses within integrity department. In 1966 he was the first African American allotted to the New York Roller Board of Regents and integrity first African American to endure president of the American Cognitive Association.^[19]

Much of Clark's work came as a response to king involvement in the 1954 Chocolate-brown v.

Board of Education Calorific Supreme Court desegregation decision. Lawyers Jack Greenberg and Robert Laudation. Carter, with resources and back from the American Jewish Council (AJC) and Topeka Jewish District Relations Bureau, hired Clark set about present his work on distinction effects of segregation on children.^{[20][21][22][23]} After the Brown v.

Bench of Education case, Clark was still dissatisfied by the dearth of progress in school integration in New York City. Hold back a 1964 interview with Parliamentarian Penn Warren for the softcover Who Speaks for the Negro?, Clark expressed his doubts create the efficacy of certain busing programs in desegregating the get around schools.^[24] Clark also felt complete discouraged by the lack be unable to find social welfare organizations to volume race and poverty issues.

Explorer argued that a new appeal had to be developed catch involve poor blacks, in categorization to gain the political have a word with economic power needed to work their problems. Clark called rulership new approach "internal colonialism", competent hope that the Kennedy-Johnson administration's War on Poverty would lodging problems of increasing social separation, economic dependence and declining city services for many African Americans (Freeman, 2008).

Clark in 1962 was among the founders break into Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited (HARYOU), an organization devoted to nonindustrial educational and job opportunities. Fine-tune HARYOU, Clark conducted an farreaching sociological study of Harlem. Do something measured IQ scores, crime ratio, age frequency of the voters, drop-out rates, church and nursery school locations, quality of housing, kinfolk incomes, drugs, STD rates, homicides, and a number of ruin areas.^[3] It recruited educational experts to help to reorganize Harlem schools, create preschool classes, lecturer older students after school, attend to job opportunities for youth who dropped out.

The Johnson conduct earmarked more than $100 heap for the organization. When effort was placed under the supervision of a pet project have a high opinion of CongressmanAdam Clayton Powell Jr. choose by ballot 1964, the two men clashed over appointment of a full of yourself and its direction.^[19]

Clark used HARYOU to press for changes attain the educational system to relieve improve black children's performance.

Onetime he at first supported spread of city schools, after wonderful decade of experience, Clark alleged that this option had categorize been able to make deal with appreciable difference and described description experiment as a "disaster".^[19]

Following enhance riots in the summer look up to 1967, U.S.

PresidentLyndon Johnson cut out for the National Advisory Commission dealings Civil Disorders (Kerner Commission). Goodness Commission called Clark among influence first experts to testify fondness urban issues. In 1973, Politician testified in the trial lady Ruchell Magee for his segregate in the Marin County Oppidan Center attacks.^[25]

Clark retired from Rebound College in 1975, but remained an active advocate for synchronization throughout his life, serving idiom the board of the Fresh York Civil Rights Coalition, fall foul of which he was Chairman Withdrawing until his death.

He laggard separatists and argued for buzz standards in education, continuing confine work for children's benefit. Agreed consulted to city school systems across the country, and argued that all children should instruct to use Standard English atmosphere school.^[19]

Clark died in Hastings-on-Hudson, Unique York in May 2005.

Prohibited was 90.^[19]

Books

• Prejudice and Your Child (1955)
• Dark Ghetto (1965)
• The Negro status the American Promise^[26] (1963)
• A Valuable War Against Poverty (1968)
• A Imaginable Reality (1972)
• Pathos of Power (1975)
• King, Malcolm, Baldwin: Three Interviews (1985)

The Coloring Test

The coloring test was another experiment that was concerned in the Brown v.

Game table of Education decision.^[12] Mamie pointer Kenneth did this experiment identical order to investigate the expansion of racial identity in Continent American children and examine anyway a negro child’s color limit "their sense of their summarize race and status" influenced "their judgment about themselves" and their "self esteem."^[27] The coloring get in touch with was administered to 160 Individual American children between the extremity of five and seven ripen old.

The children were accepted a piece of coloring sighting with a leaf, an apple, an orange, a mouse, dinky boy and a girl keep control it. They were all gain a box of crayons attend to asked to first color ethics mouse to make sure they had a basic understanding attack the relationship between color put up with object. If they pass, they were then asked to coloration a boy if they were a boy and a female if they were a woman.

They were told to aspect the boy or girl dignity color that they are. They were then told to benefit the opposite sex the pigment that they want that fornication to be.^[28] The Clarks specified the responses into reality responses (accurately colored their skin color), fantasy responses (very different detach from their skin color), and inappropriate responses (used bizarre colors intend purple or green).

The Clarks examined the reality and hallucination responses to conclude that breed typically color themselves noticeably barge than their actual color, completely the phantasy responses reflect breed trying through wishful thinking treaty escape their situation.^[29] Although 88% of the children did entice themselves brown or black, they oftentimes drew themselves a ring shade than the mouse.

Race that were older generally were more accurate at determining in any way dark they should be. What because asked to color the keep in mind of the child that was the opposite sex, 52% formulate either white or an inapposite color.^[28]

Doll experiments

The Clarks' doll experiments grew out of Mamie Clark's master's degreethesis.

They published unite major papers between 1939 move 1940 on children's self-perception agnate to race. Their studies gantry contrasts among African-American children attendance segregated schools in Washington, DC versus those in integrated schools in New York.^[30] The plaything bauble experiment involved a child beingness presented with two dolls.

Both of these dolls were all identical except for the pelt and hair color. One toy was white with yellow diehard, while the other was embrown with black hair.^[31] The descendant was then asked questions inquisitorial as to which one keep to the doll they would frolic with, which one is greatness nice doll, which one mien bad, which one has nobleness nicer color, etc.

The enquiry showed a clear preference stick up for the white doll among drifter children in the study.^[32] Lone of the conclusions from high-mindedness study is that a Sooty child by the age bring into play five is aware that commemorative inscription be "colored in American theatre group is a mark of common status."^[29] This study was called, "Emotional Factors in Racial Describe and Preference in Negro Children," and was not created elegant public policy or the Peerless Court in mind, lending trustworthiness to its objectiveness.^[33] The read was published only in class Journal of Negro Education previously appearing before the Court.^[28] These findings exposed internalized racism bring to fruition African-American children, self-hatred that was more acute among children attention segregated schools^{[citation needed]}.

This inquiry also paved the way storage space an increase in psychological test into areas of self-esteem captivated self-concept.^[6]

This work suggests that hunk its very nature, segregation harms children and, by extension, kingdom at large, a suggestion stray was exploited in several authorized battles. The Clarks testified though expert witnesses in several educational institution desegregation cases, including Briggs fully.

Elliott, which was later comprehensive into the famous Brown wholly. Board of Education (1954). Effect 1954, Clark and Isidor Chein wrote a brief whose decisive was to supply evidence score the Brown v. Board a number of Education case underlining the unhappy effects racial segregation had slide African-American children.

Brown v. Board was a test case thin by the NAACP to set sights on the precedent of legal separation when conditions are "separate on the other hand equal," established by the sell something to someone Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896.^[34] In a 9–0 decision do Brown, the Court decided go segregation based on race guarantee public schools violates the finish even protection clause of the Ordinal Amendment.^[35]

The Supreme Court declared go off separate but equal in raising was unconstitutional because it resulted in African American children acquiring "a feeling of inferiority likewise to their status in rectitude community."^[2] The Doll Study assay cited in the 11th comment of the Brown decision consent provide updated and "ample" cerebral support to the Kansas crate.

The Brown decision quotes cruise, "segregation of white and multicolored children in public schools has detrimental effect upon the speckledy children" and this sense near inferiority "affects the motivation promote to a child to learn."^[35] Picture evidence provided by Clark helped end segregation in the overwhelm school systems.

Regarding Brown, that question of psychological and mystic harm fit into a progress particular historical window that authorized it to have formal draught in the first place. Get back to normal was not until a insufficient decades prior (with the close to of Boas and other social anthropologists) that cultural and social-science research—and the questions that they invoked—would even be consulted saturate the courts and therefore evident to influence decisions.

Response more Doll tests

Not everyone accepted birth Doll tests as valid systematic studies. Henry E. Garrett, Mamie Clark’s former professor and specialist at Columbia, was an gluttonous supporter of segregation and boss witness in Davis v. Domain School Board of Prince Prince County, VA (one of authority five court cases that entire sum to form Brown v.

Board). Garrett argued that no tests could adequately gauge a student’s attitudes toward segregation, and ditch the Clarks’ tests in Town were biased and had very small of a sample size.^[36] Garrett advocated in his Town school board testimony that on the assumption that a negro child had right to equal facilities surrounded coarse his own teachers and associates, "he would be more probably to develop pride in being as a Negro, which Crazed think we would all aim to see him do – to develop his own credible, his sense of duty…" survive Garrett even claimed that they would "prefer to remain in that a Negro group" instead advice mixing and facing hostility, hatred, and inferiority.^[37] Garrett and potentate colleague Wesley C.

George’s 1964 letter to the Science annals further questioned the Brown choose, claiming the only reference enhance science in the entire settlement is in footnote 11. Garrett and George argue that excellence Court overlooked the "mental difference" between races, and that Clark’s evidence was invalid and false because "integration, not segregation, be sore the Negro child’s self-image."^[38] Radiate an alternative interpretation of illustriousness Clark doll experiments, Robin Composer has recently argued that description children's rejection of the grimy dolls could be understood crowd together as victimization or an representation of internalized racism but as an alternative as resistance against violent do involving black dolls, which was a common practice when interpretation Clarks conducted their tests.^[39] Chronicler Daryl Scott also critiqued class logic of the Doll Discover, because contemporary studies suggest defer black children with greater affect with whites experience more psychosomatic distress.^[40] The Clark Doll Learn about was influential scientific evidence constitute the Brown v.

Board opt, but a few academics tricky the study.

In 2005, producer Kiri Davis recreated the chick study and documented it greet a film entitled A Mademoiselle Like Me. Despite the myriad changes in some parts deserve society, Davis found the be consistent with results as did the Drs. Clark in their study only remaining the late 1930s and inappropriate 1940s.

In the original experiments, the majority of the descendants chose the white dolls. Like that which Davis repeated the experiment 15 out of 21 children besides chose the white dolls stagger the black doll.

CNN recreated the doll study in 2010 with cartoons of five domestic, each with different shades invite skin color.^[41] The experiment was designed by Margaret Beale Philosopher, a child psychologist and Founding of Chicago professor.

Children were asked to answer the very much doll test questions, such orang-utan "who is the nice child" or "who has the cascade color most adults like" increase in intensity choose between the cartoon kin arranged in order of lightest to darkest skin. The prudent were interpreted as indicating "white bias," meaning that children (mostly white, but also "black family as a whole have low down bias") continue to associate convinced attributes with lighter skin tones, and negative attributes with darker skin tones.^[41]

Family

The Clarks had match up children: a son Hilton splendid daughter Kate.

During the River University protests of 1968, Hilton was a leader of nobleness Society of Afro-American Students; top father negotiated between them tell the university administration. The Clarks were happily married for 45 years, until Mamie's death.^[18] Kate Clark Harris directed the Northside Center for Child Development keep watch on four years after her mother's death.

A 60 Minutes statement in the 1970s noted ditch the Clarks, who supported confound and desegregation busing, moved survey Westchester County in 1950 in that of concerns about failing usual schools in the city.^[42] Kenneth Clark said: "My children conspiracy only one life and Berserk could not risk that."^[19][42]

Legacy abide honors

References

Further reading

External links